Results and Discussion Sample

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The measurement that were recorded from the experiment focused more on how the orange peel affect the growth of the mung bean plant over the course of the experiment. Table 1. Effect of Orange Peel to the Mung Bean Plant Trial 1| Orange Peel Growth Enhancer| Commercial Growth Enhancer| Pot 1| Week 1| Week 2| Week 1| | The mung bean plant sprouted a little. | The mung bean plant grew faster after putting a large amount of orange peel. | The mung bean plant grew faster. Trial 2| Orange PeelGrowth Enhancer| CommercialGrowth Enhancer| Pot 1| Week 1| Week 2 | Week 1| | The mung bean plant sprouted a little. | The mung bean plant grew faster after putting a large amount of orange peel. | The mung bean plant grew faster. | Table 1 shows the growth of the mung bean plant during a two-week period in two trials. As the table shows, when you put little amount of orange peel to the plant and when you put a large amount of orange peel to the plant. The mung bean plant grows faster using commercial growth enhancer. But using the orange peel as growth enhancer is somehow effective. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions Based from the data gathered, the researchers conclude that the orange peel can be a good growth enhancer to mung bean plant. It gives a fast reaction to the plant. It has the same effect with commercial growth enhancers on mung bean plant. Recommendations Based from the drawn conclusions, the researchers recommend the following: 1. Conduct more reliable test using varied plants and test whether the growth enhancer will really help in faster plant growth. 2. Apply different measurement of the materials. Since putting a lot the orange peel to the plant gives faster reaction, try to apply less amount of it and test it. 3. Make one or more of the growth enhancer, and with different measurement of the materials, test whether it is more effective if you apply more orange peel or if it still effective if you put less orange peel to the plant.

Hca/250 Change and Innovation Paper

Change and Innovation Paper HCA/250 Change and Innovation Change and Innovation In today’s economy we have experienced numerous amounts of change especially within the workplace. Some of these changes consist of new technology, procedures, as well as equipment, which can cause a lot of misunderstandings amongst present employees. According to the scenario given; a major health care organization has decided to use electronic medical records (EMRs). The employees in this organization are resistant to change, specifically changes that have to deal with technology.There are several ways that an employer can resolve situations like these and convert it into a positive that will benefit the facility. Within the workplace it may be difficult for employees to adapt change due to being confined to their usual agenda. Also most may find it highly difficult to manage the adjustment in using electronic medical records (EMRs), because that’s training that present and future employee s would have to complete in order to be certified to use this new technology.Also acknowledge that many of these facilities today rarely offer on-the-job training, which is time that employees have to appoint in order to be up to date with their place of employment which many may not have. Therefore, giving us an understanding why employees would be resistant toward the technical changes within the workplace. Being that I am a recreational manager at my current place of employment I too have to deal with the questions and concerns of current employees who may have an issue with certain changes.Some strategies that I consider helpful is to start by finding out their reason for not wanting to confine to the new changes and hopefully see if there is a reasonable conclusion that can possibly resolve the situation at hand. Also, stating the present reason(s) for the change, Change and Innovation giving the employee an explanation on how it will benefit the facility as well as themselves. After doing so if their still in disagreement I’d still encourage them to perform their duties to their fullest potential.It is not guaranteed that an employer can please all of its workers, but make it to where they at least feel comfortable performing their duties in that particular work environment. So it is good to follow through with the innovation plans, so that employees are aware of their new goals and how to manage their performance for the better good of the company. So why are some employees resistant toward organizational change? There can be multiple reasons for this.Many may disagree with certain changes that are being made, time management may cause conflict to a lot of schedules, due to the fact that many of us do inquire a second job, or it can just be that they may not like the new ideas of change for their own personal reasons. It is understandable that employees may have issues with certain adjustments especially if it’s going to affect other thing s they may have going on. For example, at my place of employment we had recently made the decision to keep our facility open later on the weekends because we realized we make more profit mainly on the weekends.Whereas making such change has affected some of our employees being that some of them work second jobs strictly on the weekends aside from this one, along with others who have children and are not able to find child care that could keep their children until eleven o’clock. So it has created a lot of conflict for some of our employees where we had to come to an agreement on how we could work around their second job schedules and their availability. Having to adjust to certain employees’ availability is where Human Resources can play a role in adapting and managing change.They have the ability to set forth ideas and solutions on how to keep the necessary change in progress Change and Innovation as well as assisting their workers with managing their work schedules a nd extras that may hinder them from fully achieving the necessary changes within the work environment. Giving another example from my place of work, we have recently got the approval to expand our facility so we can add more amenities for our customers’ enjoyment. Therefore, Human Resources have aken it upon themselves to hire flex time workers in order to cover the shifts that our regular workers cannot. However, it all works out for the better good of our facility by increasing the success from the management of innovation and change. Reference 1. http://smallbusiness. chron. com/innovation-change-business 2. http://www. leadership-and-motivation-training. com/strategies-for-managing-change 3. Coulter, M. , DeCenzo, D. , Robbins, S. (2011). Fundamentals of Management: Essential Concepts and Applications. Seventh Edition. Pearson Education. Published: Prentice Hall.

Environmental Effects of Pesticides Essay

Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including nontarget species, air, water, bottom sediments, and food.[1] Pesticide contaminates land and water when it escapes from production sites and storage tanks, when it runs off from fields, when it is discarded, when it is sprayed aerially, and when it is sprayed into water to kill algae.[2] The amount of pesticide that migrates from the intended application area is influenced by the particular chemical’s properties: its propensity for binding to soil, its vapor pressure, its water solubility, and its resistance to being broken down over time.[3] Factors in the soil, such as its texture, its ability to retain water, and the amount of organic matter contained in it, also affect the amount of pesticide that will leave the area.[3] Some pesticides contribute to global warming and the depletion of the ozone layer.[4] [edit] Air Pesticides can contribute to air pollution . Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them.[5] Pesticides that are applied to crops can volatilize and may be blown by winds into nearby areas, potentially posing a threat to wildlife.[6] Also, droplets of sprayed pesticides or particles from pesticides applied as dusts may travel on the wind to other areas,[7] or pesticides may adhere to particles that blow in the wind, such as dust particles.[8] Ground spraying produces less pesticide drift than aerial spraying does.[9] Farmers can employ a buffer zone around their crop, consisting of empty land or non-crop plants such as evergreen trees to serve as windbreaks and absorb the pesticides, preventing drift into other areas.[10] Such windbreaks are legally required in the Netherlands.[10] Pesticides that are sprayed on to fields and used to fumigate soil can give off chemicals called volatile organic compounds, which can react with other chemicals and form a pollutant called tropospheric ozone. Pesticide use accounts for about 6 percent of total tropospheric ozone levels.[11] [edit] Water In the United States, pesticides were found to pollute every stream and over 90% of wells sampled in a study by the US Geological Survey.[12] Pesticide residues have also been found in rain and groundwater.[3] Studies by the UK government showed that pesticide concentrations exceeded those allowable for drinking water in some samples of river water and groundwater.[13] Pesticide impacts on aquatic systems are often studied using a hydrology transport model to study movement and fate of chemicals in rivers and streams. As early as the 1970s quantitative analysis of pesticide runoff was conducted in order to predict amounts of pesticide that would reach surface waters.[14] There are four major routes through which pesticides reach the water: it may drift outside of the intended area when it is sprayed, it may percolate, or leach, through the soil, it may be carried to the water as runoff, or it may be spilled, for example accidentally or through neglect.[15] They may also be carried to water by eroding soil.[16] Factors that affect a pesticide’s ability to contaminate water include its water solubility, the distance from an application site to a body of water, weather, soil type, presence of a growing crop, and the method used to apply the chemical.[17] Maximum limits of allowable concentrations for individual pesticides in public bodies of water are set by the Environmental Protection Agency in the US.[3][17] Similarly, the government of the United Kingdom sets Environmental Quality Standards (EQS), or maximum allowable concentrations of some pesticides in bodies of water above which toxicity may occur.[18] The European Union also regulates maximum concentrations of pesticides in water.[18] [edit] Soil Many of the chemicals used in pesticides are persistent soil contaminants, whose impact may endure for decades and adversely affect soil conservation.[19] The use of pesticides decreases the general biodiversity in the soil. Not using the chemicals results in higher soil quality,[verification needed][20] with the additional effect that more organic matter in the soil allows for higher water retention.[3] This helps increase yields for farms in drought years, when organic farms have had yields 20-40% higher than their conventional counterparts.[21] A smaller content of organic matter in the soil increases the amount of pesticide that will leave the area of application, because organic matter binds to and helps break down pesticides.[3] [edit] Effects on biota [edit] Plants Nitrogen fixation, which is required for the growth of higher plants, is hindered by pesticides in soil.[22] The insecticides DDT, methyl parathion, and especially pentachlorophenol have been shown to interfere with legume-rhizobium chemical signaling.[22] Reduction of this symbiotic chemical signaling results in reduced nitrogen fixation and thus reduced crop yields.[22] Root nodule formation in these plants saves the world economy $10 billion in synthetic nitrogen fertilizer every year.[23] Pesticides can kill bees and are strongly implicated in pollinator decline, the loss of species that pollinate plants, including through the mechanism of Colony Collapse Disorder,[24][25][26][27] in which worker bees from a beehive or Western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Application of pesticides to crops that are in bloom can kill honeybees,[5] which act as pollinators. The USDA and USFWS estimate that US farmers lose at least $200 million a year from reduced crop pollination because pesticides applied to fields eliminate about a fifth of honeybee colonies in the US and harm an additional 15%.[1] On the other side, pesticides have some direct harmful effect on plant including poor root hair development, shoot yellowing and reduced plant growth [28]. [edit] Animals Pesticides inflict extremely widespread damage to biota, and many countries have acted to discourage pesticide usage through their Biodiversity Action Plans.[citation needed] Animals may be poisoned by pesticide residues that remain on food after spraying, for example when wild animals enter sprayed fields or nearby areas shortly after spraying.[9] Widespread application of pesticides can eliminate food sources that certain types of animals need, causing the animals to relocate, change their diet, or starve.[5] Poisoning from pesticides can travel up the food chain; for example, birds can be harmed when they eat insects and worms that have consumed pesticides.[5] Some pesticides can bioaccumulate, or build up to toxic levels in the bodies of organisms that consume them over time, a phenomenon that impacts species high on the food chain especially hard.[5] [edit] Birds Bald eagles are common examples of nontarget organisms that are impacted by pesticide use. Rachel Carson’s landmark book Silent Spring dealt with the loss of bird species due to bioaccumulation of pesticides in their tissues. There is evidence that birds are continuing to be harmed by pesticide use. In the farmland of Britain, populations of ten different species of birds have declined by 10 million breeding individuals between 1979 and 1999, a phenomenon thought to have resulted from loss of plant and invertebrate species on which the birds feed.[29] Throughout Europe, 116 species of birds are now threatened.[29] Reductions in bird populations have been found to be associated with times and areas in which pesticides are used.[29] In another example, some types of fungicides used in peanut farming are only slightly toxic to birds and mammals, but may kill off earthworms, which can in turn reduce populations of the birds and mammals that feed on them.[9] Some pesticides come in granular form, and birds and other wildlife may eat the granules, mistaking them for grains of food.[9] A few granules of a pesticide is enough to kill a small bird.[9] The herbicide paraquat, when sprayed onto bird eggs, causes growth abnormalities in embryos and reduces the number of chicks that hatch successfully, but most herbicides do not directly cause much harm to birds.[9] Herbicides may endanger bird populations by reducing their habitat.[9] [edit] Aquatic life Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by pesticide-contaminated water.[30] Pesticide surface runoff into rivers and streams can be highly lethal to aquatic life, sometimes killing all the fish in a particular stream.[31] Application of herbicides to bodies of water can cause fish kills when the dead plants rot and use up the water’s oxygen, suffocating the fish.[30] Some herbicides, such as copper sulfite, that are applied to water to kill plants are toxic to fish and other water animals at concentrations similar to those used to kill the plants.[30] Repeated exposure to sublethal doses of some pesticides can cause physiological and behavioral changes in fish that reduce populations, such as abandonment of nests and broods, decreased immunity to disease, and increased failure to avoid predators.[30] Application of herbicides to bodies of water can kill off plants on which fish depend for their habitat.[30] Pesticides can accumulate in bodies of water to levels that kill off zooplankton, the main source of food for young fish.[32] Pesticides can kill off the insects on which some fish feed, causing the fish to travel farther in search of food and exposing them to greater risk from predators.[30] The faster a given pesticide breaks down in the environment, the less threat it poses to aquatic life.[30] Insecticides are more toxic to aquatic life than herbicides and fungicides.[30] [edit] Amphibians See also: Decline in amphibian population In the past several decades, decline in amphibian populations has been occurring all over the world, for unexplained reasons which are thought to be varied but of which pesticides may be a part.[33] Mixtures of multiple pesticides appear to have a cumulative toxic effect on frogs.[34] Tadpoles from ponds with multiple pesticides present in the water take longer to metamorphose into frogs and are smaller when they do, decreasing their ability to catch prey and avoid predators.[34] A Canadian study showed that exposing tadpoles to endosulfan, an organochloride pesticide at levels that are likely to be found in habitats near fields sprayed with the chemical kills the tadpoles and causes behavioral and growth abnormalities.[35] The herbicide atrazine has been shown to turn male frogs into hermaphrodites, decreasing their ability to reproduce.[34] [edit] Humans See also: Pesticide residue Pesticides can enter the human body through inhalation of aerosols, dust and vapor that contain pesticides; through oral exposure by consuming food and water; and through dermal exposure by direct contact of pesticides with skin.[36] Pesticides are sprayed onto food, especially fruits and vegetables, they secrete into soils and groundwater which can end up in drinking water, and pesticide spray can drift and pollute the air. The effects of pesticides on human health are more harmful based on the toxicity of the chemical and the length and magnitude of exposure.[37] Farm workers and their families experience the greatest exposure to agricultural pesticides through direct contact with the chemicals. But every human contains a percentage of pesticides found in fat samples in their body. Children are most susceptible and sensitive to pesticides due to their small size and underdevelopment.[36] The chemicals can bioaccumulate in the body over time. Exposure to pesticides can range from mild skin irritation to birth defects, tumors, genetic changes, blood and nerve disorders, endocrine disruption, and even coma or death.[38] Some pesticides, including aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, and toxaphene, are considered POPs.[39] POPs have the ability to volatilize and travel great distances through the atmosphere to become deposited in remote regions.[39] The chemicals also have the ability to bioaccumulate and biomagnify, and can bioconcentrate (i.e. become more concentrated) up to 70,000 times their original concentrations.[39] POPs may continue to poison non-target organisms in the environment and increase risk to humans[40] by disruption in the endocrine, reproductive, and immune systems; cancer; neurobehavioral disorders,[39] infertility and mutagenic effects, although very little is currently known about these chronic effects. Some POPs have been banned, while others continue to be used. [edit] Pest resistance

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My Inspirational Designers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

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The attraction and retention of older workers presents opportunities Research Paper

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How Can Political Factors Affect Finance In Kuwait Research Paper

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Macro Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Project 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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The Model of European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) Essay

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Psychology Interview Essay Example for Free

Psychology Interview Essay Does the interviewee remember information more accurately if he or she observes the behavior being performed or does he/she prefer to read how the behavior is performed?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The interviewee stated that he will be able to easily remember how a behavior is performed if he read about it; that’s why he prefers the second choice (Carducci, 2008). Also, he admitted that if any occurrence or behavior is to be observed only, he is more likely not to be able to recall it especially that he has a countless things on his mind and numerous things listed on his â€Å"to do list† (Carducci, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Comparing him to myself though, I prefer the opposite. I have proven to myself countless of times that I remember more clearly those occurrences or behaviors if I see it being performed. I prefer to observe since I am the type who remembers anything that I have paid careful attention to. Does the interviewee prefers studying in a library, or at home where there are background noises and some distractions? My friend opts to stay in the house to study (Carducci, 2008). He says he cannot focus on his lessons without his personal computer and subwoofers switched on (Carducci, 2008). It is very important that something noisy is present while he studies because otherwise he might just doze off and not accomplish anything at the end of the day (Carducci, 2008). He also stated that he likes to walk around the living room or his own room while reading his lessons aloud (Carducci, 2008). This is another major reason why he does not want to study in the library; he says â€Å"I will only be asked to keep quiet and may even be requested to leave the premises if I study in that manner† (Carducci, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I cannot do what he does though. I am the type who would be more efficient and effective in studying if I stay in a quiet place like the library. I prefer to stay there if my purpose is to grasp the readings and lessons that the exam will cover. In addition to that, the references that I need for further inquiry are found there and so I must stay in the library to study; computers are available as well in case I need online references. Reading/reviewing while listening to music or any kind of distraction involving sounds just does not go together for me. III. Had the person you are interviewing taken the Myers Briggs test? Report the results.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Yes, the interviewee already experienced taking the Myers Briggs test (Humanmetrics, 2007). The following feedback resulted from the â€Å"Carl Jung and Isabel Myers-Briggs typological approach to personality† (Humanmetrics, 2007). According to the aforementioned, the interviewee is â€Å"very expressed extravert; that he possesses slightly expressed sensing personality; that he has a moderately expressed thinking personality; as well as slightly expressed judging personality† (Humanmetrics, 2007). He is then excessively extroverted, slightly thinking, moderately sensing, and to some extend a perceiving individual (Humanmetrics, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The results that I got after answering numerous questions are the following: â€Å"that I am distinctively expressed introvert; moderately expressed intuitive personality; moderately expressed feeling personality; and distinctively expressed judging personality† (Humanmetrics, 2007). It says that I am introverted and equally judging; as well as, intuitive and equally feeling (Humanmetrics, 2007). Which experiences does this person feel contributed most in the development of his/her personality?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The interviewee stated that there were countless experiences that he went through (Carducci, 2008). He believes that all these contributed largely in the development of his personality (Carducci, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   First of all, he comes from an unprivileged family (Carducci, 2008).   During his elementary and high school days, he struggled too much as he cannot even go to school everyday because there was no money to be spent on food (Carducci, 2008).   He said it was too difficult to stay focused in the lessons or anything that’s going on in the classroom with an empty stomach for two or three days straight (Carducci, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Second, his father usually does not have a job (Carducci, 2008). In cases where he finds one, the longest time that he is able to stay is only four weeks (Carducci, 2008).   This is because he is a drunkard and sometimes would go to work extremely drunk (Carducci, 2008).   Since such behavior poses great threat to other employees, eventually he is fired (Carducci, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Third, his father comes home without money and would check on the fridge if there was food to eat (Carducci, 2008).   If he does not find anything, he would lash out at his mother and/or attack her (Carducci, 2008).   His mother would be whipped, slapped, punched, and even thrown (Carducci, 2008).   If he tries to protect his mother and fight his father off, then they would both get hurt at the end of the day (Carducci, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fourth, his mother would release her anger on him and his brothers and sisters (Carducci, 2008). She would shout at them, threaten them that she is going to leave them behind because she could no longer take it (Carducci, 2008). She would state that her life would not be so excruciatingly difficult if she did not have a husband and children like them (Carducci, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fifth, his little sister turned suicidal because of the family problems that they went through (Carducci, 2008).   He would feel hopeless and helpless because of his little sisters numerous attempts (Carducci, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Sixth, his father was sent to prison because of violence against women and children (Carducci, 2008).   He feels hurt but at the same time relieved that he no longer has to put up with him (Carducci, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Seventh, before he can even recover from his â€Å"loss†, he feels he is going to lose another important loved one again as his mother remarries a younger man (Carducci, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It turned out though that his stepfather is a nice, brilliant, open-minded man who cares deeply for his mother and for his brothers and sisters (Carducci, 2008).   In fact, he sent him to one of the best schools when he decided he wanted to attend college and finish a Baccalaureate course (Carducci, 2008).   He also sent his brothers and sisters to school (Carducci, 2008). In addition to that, he put up a small flower shop for his mother who finished BS Management in college; he said it is about time that his mother also attends to enriching her own career (Carducci, 2008). He also bought each and everyone their needs (and even some of their wants); in fact, he got a personal computer, his brothers received game boy, his sisters got branded dolls, etc (Carducci, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   His stepfather also brought him to places that he has never been into including the following: â€Å"Transamerica Pyramid, Bank of America, Chinatown, Lombard Street, Haight-Ashbury, Coit Memorial Tower, Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, California Academy of Sciences, Palace of Fine Arts, Presidio, Alcatraz, University of California, Berkeley† (Carducci, 2008). The trip gave him an opportunity to bond with someone who can be a father to him, who can guide him as he goes along, and who can protect him as he battles with life’s surprises and difficulties (Carducci, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   He learned to be strong as he went through poverty, abuse from his father, etc (Carducci, 2008). He became even stronger when his extra nice stepfather came along (Carducci, 2008). The training that he got from his stepfather and the good examples showed to him played a large role in the development of his personality (Carducci, 2008). I have my own experiences as well that helped in the development of my personality. First of all, I have a mother who is very supportive and proud of whatever I have accomplished. Second, I was brought up to be a nice individual, not hurting anyone, helping people in need, putting God at the center of life, etc. Such values were instilled in me because the people around me exhibited/portrayed great examples. Third, I experienced being sent to the best schools and so I have learned the proper ethics, training, and etiquette. Fourth, I have witnessed my mom’s battle with ovarian cancer. In spite of being given only a few months to live, she showed me how determined she was in fighting that illness. She showed me her strength, as well as, her faith. I grew to be almost like her, never losing hope and always believing in God. Last but not least, I am also surrounded with friends who are extremely serious and concerned with life. I only have a few friends, which probably explains, why I am introverted, but I am proud to say that they are all true friends. I have developed a positive personality partly because of them as well. Does this person feel that he/she is self-monitoring in regards to his/her attitudes? How or how not? The interviewee believes that he is not at all â€Å"self-monitoring† (Carducci, 2008). He admits he would probably be more scared if he would be one (Carducci, 2008). He also feels that he were like that, he would not know what to do since he will turn more conscious about the negative occurrences and may all the more exhibit the negative attitudes that he observed (Carducci, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the other hand, I am the â€Å"self-monitoring† type since I tend to reminisce about everything that happens to me. I think about it seriously and try to realize what needs to be learned from it and apply it in life. I make sure to try to instill another positive attitude or value to improve my personality. What does the interviewee feel was the strongest influence on his/her attitudes? His stepfather contributed largely to the interviewee’s attitudes as he is the one who showed and instilled good values on him (Carducci, 2008). Without him and his examples, his personality would not have been developed into a positive/good one (Carducci, 2008). He is also relieved that his stepfather had the strongest influence on his attitude instead of his real father who has never been a good example to him (Carducci, 2008). VII. What role does your interviewee feel a persons race, gender, or ethnicity play when forming that persons personality and attitudes?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ethnicity, gender, and race are three concepts that may be subjected to stereotyping and so an individuals’ personality/attitude may be greatly affected if these three factors come into play (Carson et. al., 1992).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I believe it can as well; but it only will if a person consents to it. See, stereotyping is subjective, and so if only people can be objective enough then ethnicity, gender, and race will not be able to play a role in the development of one’s personality, at least not in the negative manner. VIII. Does this person feel he/she is better at tasks when intrinsically motivated or extrinsically motivated?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The interviewee is more comfortable with â€Å"extrinsic motivation† or when an incentive or reward is provided (Meyers, 2004).   Meanwhile, I am at ease with its opposite. References Carducci, I.C. (2008). Personal Interview. Carson, R.C. Butcher, J.N. (1992). The World of Abnormal Psychology. New York: Harper Collins. Humanmetrics. (2007). Jung Typology Test. Retrieved January 24, 2008 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes1.htm    Meyers, D. (2004). Psychology: Seventh Edition. New York: Worth Publishers.

Effects of Disputes in Construction

Effects of Disputes in Construction This chapter initially deals with the causes and effects of delays in projects relating to the construction, engineering and IT industries, and the resulting disputes within them. The analytic comparison of delays in each of these industries has then been carried out. Various project case studies, pertaining to the causes and effects of delays and disputes, belonging to each of the above industries have then been included to give a reader a wider scope of the subject matter. The characteristics of certain delay mitigation strategies and dispute resolution techniques have also been investigated for the duration of this chapter. Delays in the Construction Industry Construction industry according to George, O. (1990) may be defined as that sector of the economy which plans, designs, constructs, alters, maintains, repairs, and eventually demolishes buildings, of all kinds, civil engineering works, mechanical and electrical engineering structures and other similar works. Delays on projects are a universal phenomenon and the construction industry is no exception. It has been regarded as a serious problem by Al-Khalil and Al-Ghafly (1999), who further state that it proves costly for both owners and contractors. According to the authors, the owner loses by missing out on the potential revenues from the use of the project and by increased overhead cost for contract administration. Meanwhile, the contractor is said to lose as a result of increased overhead costs and lost opportunities for new projects because of diminished financial capabilities. In relation to project management, a project manager firstly needs to be concerned with the causes of delays, which could be at a national level (Kumaraswamy Chan, 1997; Kaming et al, 1997; Mezher and Tawil, 1998; Al-Khalil and Al-Ghafly, 1999) or at a project level (Rad, 1979; Charoenngam and Yen, 1999; Olima and KAmumu, 1999). The next step is for them is to realise the effects of delays in terms of a projects legal disputes (Scott, 1993), cost overruns (Mansfield et al, 1994), delay analysis techniques (Bordoli and Baldwin, 1998) etc. Delay mitigation is the next step which focuses mainly on the strategies used for construction schedule comparison and accelerated working (Conlin and Rectic, 1997; Noyce and Hanna, 1998). The last step would be to analyse or examine the drawbacks of delay mitigation strategies (Cristian and Hackney, 1995) which could contribute to additional delays. The above four steps involving delays in construction projects must be considered by project managers in order to achieve successful project completion and delivery. In a hypothetical case assuming a project is delayed because materials arrive late on site, the project manager must be able to recognise it as a delay factor. Secondly, the project manager must be responsible for calculating the effects of delays, prior to deciding upon the most suitable delay mitigation strategy. If the project manager decides to use overtime work, then this according to Horner and Talhouni (1995) will lead to a reduction in productivity of the workforce, hence a new delay factor would be added to the project. According to Oztas (1995) the word delay is a relative term in construction. The way the contractor, the client, the architect and the engineer view a delay or its effect to the project most of the times, if not all, vary significantly. The differences in opinion can be explained by the role each party plays in the contract, the cost implications a delay causes to each party, or the legal disputes which arise from the delay. Understanding the nature of construction delays will enhance the ability of the project manager to handle them. All four dimensions must be analyzed in order to have a balanced view of the subject. The following section sheds light upon some of the causes of delays in construction projects around the world, its legal aspects and its effects. Causes of construction delays According to a survey conducted within the construction industry by Sambasivan, M. Wen Soon Y. (2007), the ten most important causes of delay were found to be (1) contractors improper planning, (2) contractors poor site management, (3) inadequate contractor experience, (4) inadequate clients finance and payments for completed work, (5) problems with subcontractors, (6) shortage in material, (7) labour supply, (8)equipment availability and failure, (9) lack of communication between parties, and (10) mistakes during the construction stage. These causes of delay were not far from what Sweis, G.et al (2008) had investigated during their survey. They claimed that the most important causes of delay were due to (1) Poor planning and scheduling of the project by the contractor, (2) Financial difficulties faced by contractor, and (3) too many change orders from owners. As far as commercial projects are concerned, the main cause of delay arises from delay in payment, since there is argument between the two parties on how financial backup will be provided. Odeh and Battaineh (2001) carried out a survey within construction projects involving traditional contracts, in which they identified and categorised the causes of delay according to the project participants. They state that as far as clients are concerned, delay factors include owner interference, finance and payments of completed work, slow decision making and unrealistic contract duration imposed by owners. Delay factors relating to contractors on the other hand include site management, improper planning, inadequate contractor experience, mistakes during construction, improper construction methods and delays caused by subcontractors. Consultant related delay factors include contract management, preparation and approval of drawings, quality assurance/ control, and long waiting time for approval of tests and inspections. Apart from the above mentioned categories, the authors also mention contractual relationship issues, which include major disputes and negotiations during construction, inappropriate organisational structure linking all parties involved in the project, and lack of communication between parties. External factors contributing to project delays include weather conditions, changes in regulations, problems with neighbours and site conditions. The authors failed to mention the political and socio-economical factors, which would have been a helpful addition to this study considering delays in construction projects are not all the same. Legal aspects According to Carnell (2000), delay claims are perhaps the most common form of construction disputes. Scott (1993) found that more than 50% of contracts in the UK end up with extension of time claims with supporting evidence submitted. A similar survey by Yogeswaran et al (1999) investigated 67 civil engineering projects in Hong Kong where claims arose. These claims were a result of different factors, mainly including extension of time due to bad weather (82% of projects), variation orders (49% of projects) and delays caused by utility undertakers. However, it should be noted that claims for extra time or cost do not necessarily end in disputes in all projects. From a legal point of view, according to Kraeim Diekmann (1987), delays factors are classified into three main categories: (1) Compensable, (2) Excusable, and (3) Non-Excusable. According to Scott (1993), the latter terms are used in the United States, while in the UK the terms used are: (1) the client is responsible, neither party is responsible and (3) the contractor is responsible. Irrespective of the terminology used in either country, Arditi and Patel (1989) explain the above as: Compensable/Client is responsible: Delays entitled compensable are not caused by the contractor but by the owner. The main delay factors included in this category are: owners delay in providing access to site, changes in scope of work, non payment to the contractor, improper or delayed issue of change orders, inadequate information and supervision by the owner. When a compensable delay occurs, the contractor is allowed time extension and extra costs for losses. Non-Excusable/Contractor is responsible: Non-excusable delays are caused by the contractors inefficiency. The main delay factors in this category include: shortages of qualified workers, technical personnel or materials, failure to coordinate work (i.e. deficient planning), delays caused by subcontractors, defective work that has to be redone, slow mobilisation, low contractor productivity and accidents. The owner in this case reserves the right to charge the contractor liquidated damages for such delays in the total project duration. Excusable/Neither party is responsible: Delays in this category are caused by events that are beyond the contractor or the clients control. Factors include extreme weather conditions, fire, flood, strikes, and lockouts; vandalism, war, epidemics, damages caused by parties others than the contractor or the owner, government actions or construction law. According to Kraeim and Diekmann (1987), excusable delays are listed in a clause in the contract document (i.e. Force Majeure Clause) and that the sole relief for excusable delays is time extension. The authors argue that the situation becomes more complicated in the case of concurrent delays. These types of delays occur when the overall delay is caused by several factors, some of which are within the owners responsibility and some of which are within the contractors responsibility (Arditi and Patel, 1989; pp.146). The effects of delays To investigate the effects of delays in large construction projects, Assaf Al-Hejji (2006) conducted a survey in which it was concluded that 70% of the projects experienced time overruns. Their research showed that only 30% of construction projects were completed within the scheduled completion dates and that the average time overrun was between 10% and 30%. A similar observation was made by Aibinu Jagboro (2002), whose findings for the Nigerian construction industry showed that time and cost overruns were frequent effects of delays. They had stated in their research that delay had significant effect on completion cost and time of 61 building projects being studied. In a similar but a more integrated approach to finding the effects of delays in construction projects, Sambasivan Wen Soon (2007) identified six effects of delays to be (1) time overrun, (2) cost overrun, (3) disputes, (4) arbitration, (5) litigation, and (6) total abandonment of the project. A delay affects both the construction schedule and the cost of a project. The impact on the construction schedule depends mainly on the activities in which the delay is encountered and the existence or not of float in the delayed activities. The cost effects are mainly related with the types of costs associated with the delayed activity, e.g. the liquidated damages for delay. In order to make a general statement, the author believes that the time value of money should be taken into account. The most likely effect of delay is the reduction of the NPV of the investment. Furthermore, as Thomson (1995a) state, since most recourse costs in construction projects are time related, consequently any extension of programme will lead to increased costs. An analysis of the two main effects follows. Impact on the construction schedule Bordoli and Baldwin (1998) classified delay factors in six types according to their impact on the construction schedule. These types are: Date delays: an activity cannot start or finish until a specific date irrespective of when preceding activities were carried out or were planned to be carried out. For example, a delay of this type occurs when the delivery of plant or materials is scheduled for a specific date without which the work cannot start. Total delays: Complete stoppage to all parts of the works occurs. For example, strikes and lockouts or postponements of the works. Extended delays: Duration of an activity is extended. For example when an increase in the work content of an activity occurs. Additional delays: New construction activities are added to the planned work. New or additional work is incorporated into the project, subsequent to the production of the original programme. Sequence delays: Activities cannot start or finish in the sequence originally planned. For example, changes in specification of materials or techniques which result in activities no longer able to be carried out concurrently. Progress delays: when the progress of the works was less than that planned. This could be the result of the use of inadequate labour, plant or materials, or even excessively ambitious time estimates. Examining the latter types of delays gives an overview of the impact delays on the construction schedule. The effect of a delay on the schedule can range from few minutes, hours, days to complete stoppage of works. The schedule is altered in many ways. Activities must be re-planned, changes to the sequence of work can occur, logical linkages between activities could change and resources have to be reallocated. As far as the duration of work is concerned the main factor that must be considered is float. When a delay occurs in critical activities it is clear that the duration of the project will increase if the contractor doesnt accelerate works. When a delay occurs in non critical activities then what is important to consider is the ratio between the float and the duration of the delay. If the float is consumed then this will, in turn, change the critical path of the project by concerting a non critical activity to a critical one. If on the other hand, the delay is less than the float then the overall duration of the project is not affected but the risk of overrun is increased, by the increased probability of further critical delays. Cost overruns There are several scenarios related with the cost overruns of construction delays. Oztas (1995) mentions that delays lead to additional expenses incurred by the contractor and that most of them occur due to prolonging the job, reallocation of work forces, storing extra materials on site, wasting materials, or loss of productivity or workers due to reassignment. It is vital for the project manager to assess the cost overruns in terms of materials, equipment and labour costs. There are several types of costs associated with any delayed activity in a project. Thompson (1995a) identify these as being (1) fixed charges incurred at any point in time, (2) quantity proportional charges related to quality of work completed, output of deliveries of materials, and (3) time related charges which, according to the author, refers to the cost of resources. The author argues that the sensitivity of delay in terms of cost will be determined by the relative contribution of each type of cost mentioned above, and the existence of float. Delays occurring on a critical activity lead to an extension of the duration of the project in most cases, which, in turn lead to an increase in both fixed and time related costs. Another major concern for a project manager in terms of construction costs are liquidated damages. Scott (1993) explains liquidated damages as being a sum of money, usually specified in the contract, being deducted from the contractor in the event of a failure to complete the project in the specified time frame. They state that the contract normally specifies a predetermined time after which it must be substantially completed and available for use. An example of a standard form of contract including a clause of liquidated damages includes the ICE Condition of Contract Edition 7, Clause 47 (Hawker, 1999). Delays as a benchmark of success Construction delays are not necessarily a root cause of failure of a project. Many authors investigating the causes of success or failure of projects agree that the classical triangle of cost,time and quality should not be used as the only measure of success of projects (Morris and Hough, 1987; Gardiner and Stewart, 2000; Atkinson, 1999). The latter argument is based on the fact that most construction projects encounter both time and cost overruns. Rad (1979) estimated that the increase in terms of time and cost of nuclear plant projects in the United States was significant. Similarly Morris and Hough (1987) who evaluated the records of more than 4000 projects between 1959 and 1986 concluded that the success rate of projects is generally poor and that overrun values range between 40 to 200 percent. Perhaps the most extreme view concerning time and cost estimates of projects is expressed by Atkinson (1999) who states: Time and cost are at best only best guesses, calculated at a time w hen least is known about the project. The overall conclusion drawn from current research is that construction delays and cost overrun is not something rare but instead a common phenomenon. Since time and cost may not be the best measures of success, alternatives must be presented. Gardiner and Stewart (2000) state, that the Net Present Value of the investment should be used as a criterion of success. They concluded that: It is recommended changing the performance measures that are common today from: The project was delivered on time, to budget, and of the required quality to: The project was delivered with the best achievable NPV and to the required quality (Gardiner and Stewart, 2000, pp.255) Atkinson (1999) considered a new framework to consider success; The Square Root. The main idea behind this new framework is that the there are four categories of success criteria. The first is the classical time-cost-quality triangle. The second is concerned with the maintainability and reliability of the information system. The third is related with the benefits for the organization in terms of improved efficiency, effectiveness and profits. The last group of success factors such as satisfied users, social and environmental uses and personal development. Examining the discussion related with project critical success factors brings into light different aspects of construction delays. If, on one hand, the primary objective of a project is to finish on time then a delay during construction could be the main cause of failure of the project. On the other hand, if the primary objective is customer satisfaction then a delay may just be the effect of design changes, which will lead to the desired customer satisfaction and project success. In all cases the primary objectives of the project will determine the role of delays to the success or failure of the project. Delays in the Engineering Industry The engineering industry is one of the most important basic industries for any economy. It has been referred to by Desai (1987) as being an economys Engine of Growth. It supplies plant and machinery for other industries, equipments to build up infrastructures, automobiles, aircrafts, and a host of other tools and equipments. The engineering industry has widened its base across a broad spectrum and inducted the latest technology in many areas including, electrical and electronics, mechanical, transportation, industrial and other miscellaneous engineering sectors. According to Mahapatra and Biswal (2007), the development of an economy and the achievement of self-sufficiency in various sectors depend to a very large extent on the development of the engineering industry. Since it being such a large industry, it is also not immune from delays. The project participants in engineering projects are known to be consultant engineers, contractors and owners. Similar impacts are observed on project participants in this industry due to delays, as are mentioned above for the construction industry. The following section looks into some of the causes and effects of delays in the engineering industry. Causes of engineering delays Yates (2007) identified a list of common delay factors belonging to both the planning and operating stages of engineering projects. They are (1) Political and Social unrest, (2) Religious and Social factors, (3) Labour disputes and strikes, (4) Technologic and Economic limitations, (5) Government Restrictions, (6) Global technical delay factors (7) Changes in project requirements, (8) Lack of communication between various divisions, and (9) Miscellaneous planning delays . The author explains the above delay factors as: Political and Social unrest: Certain regions of the world are said to be undergoing drastic and violent changes in their political, economic and social environment. Situations like these limits access to foreign contractors working in large engineering projects, and hence are a cause of major delay in project execution. The author argues that the ruling party in such countries are afraid to make political decisions on social or economic reforms for the fear of jeopardising the delicate balance existing between various ethnic groups, political parties and social classes. Religious and Social factors: With the aid of engineering projects being executed in the Middle East, the author argues that foreign contractors often tolerate delays due to religious festivities in these parts of the world, e.g. during the month of Ramadan. It is in these times that local labourers are hard to hire as they are not readily available due to social and economic reasons as stated by the author. As a result engineering and construction firms often import foreign labours into these parts of the world, by which they experience both time and cost overruns. Labour disputes and strikes: Labour disputes or strikes are said to be a common delay factor in engineering industries and tends to disrupt construction or manufacturing schedule. Project managers need to identify and effectively negotiate with the labour representatives in order to stop further delays emanating from such undesirable events. Technologic and Economic limitations: These include factors such as design standards, constructability issues, performance standards, quality standards, material availability, testing, inspection and safety. On the other hand, economic limitations include factors such as inflation, escalation and the availability of cash flow. Furthermore, the level of motivation in the workforce also plays a useful role in limiting economic delays. The importance of motivation in employees has been discussed earlier in Chapter 2. Government restrictions: These include imposition of legal restrictions, regulations and interference by the local government, which tends to disrupt the manufacturing and construction in an engineering industry. Some governments such as Japan put on restrictions such as acts of protectionism, where foreign firms are not allowed to operate in their country. Other government restrictions include the requirement and inspection of certain permits, before during and at the conclusion of the end product. Global technical delay factors: The results which the author has been able to gather from a global survey of engineering projects indicated the following causes of technical delays: (1) Design modifications, (2) Weather (climate), (3) Material delivery, (4) Equipment delivery, (5) Incomplete drawings, and (6) Material quality. Changes in project requirements: This has been termed by the author as one of the most frequent causes of planning delays. Irrespective of where a project is going to be built, project owners are often indecisive in their approach during the planning stage of an engineering project. The need for project owners to prioritize projects is a critical step towards attaining timely project completion. Lack of communication between various divisions: Ineffective communication in an organisation that is planning and designing projects often leads to multiple delays. A project manager who knows how to effectively document processes helps to reduce delays along with steps like formalising the planning process, scheduling routine team meetings, assigning the project to an experienced project manager, or empowering the project manager to act as a conduit for communication. The need of having effective communication in organisations has been discussed previously in Chapter 2. Miscellaneous planning delays: Other factors that cause global project planning delays include the following: (1) Lack of political and governmental support, (2) Hidden agendas and strong individuals pushing their ideas, and (3) Lack of knowledge about planning processes and strategic planning. Legal aspects Certain contractual claims exist in the engineering industry. An example according to Smith et al (1999) includes a claim made under clause 12 of the ICE contract, which entitles contractors, in limited circumstances, to claim in respect of delay and extra cost should they encounter certain adverse physical conditions or artificial obstructions as the work progresses. In such claims there is no blame on the part of the employer or the engineer since adverse physical conditions are a neutral event, and the issue of suspending the works is merely the exercise of a contractual right. Apart from contractual claims, there are certain claims for breach of contract, for example clause 7(4) of the ICE conditions contract entitles contractors to claim for delay in issuing drawings or instructions by the engineer at the right time. According to the authors, the engineers failure to provide information at the right time is a breach of the express provisions of the contract, for which the employ er is held accountable in law.

Applying Criminological Theories to Cyber Crime

Applying Criminological Theories to Cyber Crime Cybercrime The internet is perhaps today’s most influential technological invention and continues to change daily life for virtually everyone on Earth. Millions of people are plugged into cyberspace, and thousands more enter the online world every day. Not only has the Internet revolutionized the way we interact with others and learn, it has forever changed the way we live. As internet and computer technologies continue to thrive; criminals have found ways to use these technologies as a tool for their deviant acts. Cybercrimes are a new breed of crime that are perpetrated using computers, or are otherwise related to them. Cyber crime is different and more heinous than conventional crime in that the crime is committed through an electronic medium which makes it difficult to track and identify the criminal. The most common types of cybercrime include cyber fraud, defamation, hacking, bullying, and phishing. Within the field of criminology, a number of theories exist that attempt to explain why some people engage in deviant behavior, while others abstain from it. Although, these theories were originally meant to explain crimes committed in the ‘real world’, they can still be applied to cybercrime. These theories include social learning theory, low self-control theory, general strain theory, frustration aggression hypothesis, routine activity theory, and situational crime prevention theory. This paper will analyze aspects of the above theories, for the purpose of seeing which best explains the cause of cybercrime. Akers’ social learning theory is a general theory of crime and has been used to explain a diverse array of criminal behaviours. This work embodies within it four fundamental premises that include differential association, definitions, differential reinforcement and imitation (Burruss et al., 2012). Social learning theory is based on the idea that individuals develop motivations and skills to commit crime through the association with or exposure to others who are involved in crime (i.e., associating with deviant peers). Akers’s proposed that this exposure to deviant behavior provided individuals with definitions that are seen as either approving of or neutralizing the behaviour. These definitions become rationalizations for criminals when committing a crime. Differential reinforcement refers to the rewards that are associated with a particular criminal behavior. This criminal behavior is originally learned through the process of imitation, which occurs when individuals l earn actions and behavior by watching and listening to others. So, when an individual commits a crime, he or she is mimicking the actions that they have seen others engage in (Burruss et al., 2012). In regards to cybercrime, research has found that social learning theory can explain the development and ongoing issue of software piracy. In their study of software piracy, Burruss et al, found that individuals who associate with software piracy peers learn and subsequently accept the deviant conduct. Software piracy requires a certain degree of skills and knowledge to access and deviant peers to originally learn these skills from. Furthermore, the deviant individuals rationalize their criminal behavior and help in the fostering of a network that connects and teaches other individuals these rationalizations and behavior. The study also suggested that individuals are more likely to engage in software piracy when they see others experiences positive reinforcement for their participation ( Burruss et al., 2012). Not only does social control theory explain for software piracy, elements of this theory can be attributed in other cybercrimes. For example in any crime, the rationalizations and skills must be learned and behavior is reinforced through the association and observation of others. Thus, the main idea behind social learning theory is that we become who we are based on our surroundings and this explanation can be used to explain cybercrime. While social learning theory emphasizes the importance of external factors that influence criminal involvement, low self-control theory posits that low self-control is a key factor underlying criminality. This theory was originally developed by criminologists Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi. They proposed that their self-control theory can explain all types of crimes, all the time (Burruss et al., 2012). Individuals with low self-control were characterized with being risk taking, short-sighted, impulsive and prefer simple and easy tasks. These characteristics inhibit an individuals ability to accurately calculate the consequences of deviance. According to this theory, crime is seen as a means of obtaining immediate gratification, and the ability to delay such short-term desires is linked to self-control. As such, those with a propensity for criminal involvement are thought to lack sufficient self-control. Also, people with low self-control act impulsively- without much thought and based on what they are feeling at the moment. This makes them risk takers as they do not consider the consequences of their actions. Finally, low self-control people are focused on themselves and lack empathy towards others (Burruss et al., 2012). According to Gottfredson and Hirschi, low self-control originates in early socialization when parents are ineffective in their parenting. Therefore, neglecting and uncaring parents are likely to fail to socialize their child to properly delay gratification, care about the feelings of others, and restrain their impulses. As a result, children with low levels of self-control end up being more prone to crime, and their criminal propensity continues into later life. The characteristics of low self-control can be applied to some simple forms of cybercrime, including software piracy. In their study, Burruss et al , stated that levels of low self-control are directly related to the act of software piracy. For instance, an individual is likel y to perform software piracy because they are impulsive and unable to wait to purchase a copy of the software. These individuals are not likely to be empathetic to the copyright holder and neglect any responsibility. Further, these individuals are likely to be attracted to the thrill and ease of engaging in software piracy. The study also found that low self-control does have an effect on software piracy and that social learning theory measures (i.e., associating with deviant peers and positive attitudes toward software piracy) condition this effect. Thus, from the characteristics of low self-control, those with low levels of self-control are likely to participate in deviant behavior both on and offline because of their desire of immediate gratification. Robert Agnew’s general strain theory proposes that strain leads to negative emotions, which may lead to a number of outcomes, including delinquency. The specific strains discussed in the theory include the failure to achieve positively valued goals (e.g., money), the removal of positively valued stimuli (e.g., loss of a valued possession), and the presentation of negatively valued stimuli (e.g., physical abuse) (Patchin Hinduja, 2011). The first strain looks at the gap between the expectations of the individual and what they actually achieve, which leads to disappointment and resentment. The second type of strain is caused when a positively valued stimulus is removed and the result is delinquency. This criminal behavior may present itself as an attempt to ease or replace the stimuli. The final type of strain occurs when confronted with negative stimuli. This may cause delinquency as a means to terminate or avoid the negative stimuli (Patchin Hinduja, 2011). According to Agne w, strain does not directly cause crime but rather promotes negative emotions like aggression and frustration. This is directly in conjunction with the frustration-aggression hypothesis by Yale university psychologists. They believed that anger comes before frustration, and frustration can manifest into both aggressive and non-aggressive behavior (Runions, 2013). In turn, these negative emotions necessitate coping responses as a way to relieve internal pressure. Coping via illegal behaviour and violence may be especially true for adolescents because of their limited resources and inability to escape frustrating environments. In their article, Patchin Hinduja, concluded that general strain theory can be used to explain illegal behavior such as cyber bullying among youth. Cyber bullying is a serious and growing problem that occurs when youth use electronics to harass or intimidate their peers in a deliberate attempt to inflict direct or indirect harm. There are some unique elements in the digital setting that are not present offline, such as: anonymity, constant connectivity, and permanence. This new technology allows victims to be attacked at anytime and the anonymity of cyber bullies makes it difficult to identify them. Agnew argues that strain makes people feel angry, frustrated, depressed, and essentially creates pressure for corrective action on the part of the victim. In response to this pressure, victims react by wanting to take a corrective action as a means to alleviate the bad feelings. Consequently for some victims, cyber bullying is one corrective action that adolescents might take to mitigate the bad feelings (Patchin Hinduja, 2011). Together, general strain theory and frustration aggression hypothesis, provide an understanding of how pe ople, especially youth, respond and deal with negative strain, whether it may be to bully others or do deviant acts to alleviate the strain. Routine Activity Theory was developed by Cohen and Felson to originally fill the shortcomings in existing models that failed to adequately address crime rate trends since the end of World War II. They suggested that the behavior of most victims is repetitive and predictable and that the likelihood of victimization is dependent on three elements: motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of capable guardians (Reyns, 2013). The motivated offender is someone willing to commit a crime if an opportunity presents itself. A suitable target is one that the motivated offender values (e.g., credit card information). In addition to these, a capable guardian includes anything that obstructs the offender’s ability to acquire the target (e.g., antivirus, encryption). With the increasing use of the internet, criminals have found new opportunities to victimize their targets on a whole new platform. Researchers have found some support for applying the tenets of routine activity th eory to the study of cybercrime (Van Wilsem, 2011). People whose regular activities place them in situations where they have the possibility of interacting with offenders are at an increased risk of being victimized. Research has found that the amount of time spent online, more use of internet banking and online purchases, and risky online behavior make people more suitable to offenders. Individuals with these actions are more likely to be targeted for identity theft. Furthermore, the lack of antivirus and network security (capable guardians) is associated with more victimization (Reyns, 2013). So, routine activity theory can be used, to an extent, to explain certain types of cybercrime. Situational crime prevention is a crime prevention strategy that addresses specific crimes by manipulating the environment in a way that increases the risk to the offender, while reducing the potential reward for committing the crime (Hinduja Kooi, 2013). It is rooted in rational choice theory, routine activities theory, and crime pattern theory. Like other prevention measures, situational prevention focuses on reducing crime opportunities rather than the criminals. This theory differs from other criminological theories in that they do not look at why the offender did the crime, but rather how to prevent crime from altering the physical surroundings where the crime takes place. Essentially, it seeks to make the criminal act more difficult to commit in the first place. Like other primary crime prevention measures, situational prevention tends to focus on reducing crime opportunities rather than on the characteristics of criminals or potential criminals. In regards to cybercrime, ther e are ways in which space can be designed to prevent crime through: target hardening, access control, deflecting offenders, and controlling facilitators (Hinduja Kooi, 2013). Target hardening is the actual physical (or digital) barriers that reduce chances of crime, such as encrypting sensitive information. Access control involves strategies to prevent potential offenders from areas that a crime can occur. This includes photo ID cards, passwords, and check-in booths. Deflecting offenders is concerned with initiatives to move potential offenders away from their crime targets. For example, storing valuable data off-site would deter potential offenders from searching for it. Controlling facilitators involves checking elements that may cause a crime, such as doing background checks on employees or restricting unauthorized installations on computers (Hinduja Kooi, 2013). Research has found that situational crime prevention strategies can be used to reduce cyber stalking and other onlin e victimization crimes. Also, prevention strategies can be applied InfoSec to effectively protect the assets of organizations from being exploited online (Hinduja Kooi, 2013). Theoretically, if used effectively, the principles of situational crime prevention seem to be able to prevent most types of cyber crime. Computers and the internet have become common place in today’s society. This new technology has resulted in the development of a new form of crime, cybercrime. I think that criminal behavior cannot be explained entirely by one theory; it requires the combination of various theories. Different aspects of each theory can be used in conjunction to compensate for what each individual theory failed to explain. For example, social learning theory believes that crime is learned through association with deviant peers and research has already shown that there is a relationship between the number of deviant peers an individual has and his or her participation in software piracy (Burruss et al., 2012). But, researchers have not examined whether social learning theory applies to all types of cybercrimes or just certain cybercrimes. On the other hand, low self control theory asserts that low self control is the cause of crime all the time. This may be true for some criminals, but many crim inals, like those involved in white collar crimes, do not adhere to the principles of low self control. However, while self-control theory is useful in explaining why individuals may act in a certain way, it does not explain the situations that must be met for a crime to occur. Routine activity theory describes the situational factors that must be present for a crime to occur. It is more difficult to apply this theory to cybercrime because the offender and victim do not necessarily have to meet for the crime to occur. Similar to low self control theory, strain theory maintains that when an individual cannot achieve his or her goals, he or she experiences strain and as a result they may turn to crime (Patchin Hinduja, 2011). But, researchers could further study whether an individual’s strain in the ‘real world’ affects their deviant behavior in the virtual world. So, an individual’s low self-control and negative strain combined with his or her deviant asso ciations and regular activities can increase an individual’s risk of being victimized online. Future studies of cybercrime victimization may draw benefit from using a combination of these theories to explore the problem. Cybercrime research will be important to our understanding of crime as our society becomes more and more dependent on technology. References Burruss, George W., Bossler, Adam M. And Holt, Thomas J. (2012). Assessing the mediation of a fuller social learning model on low self-control’s influence on software piracy. Crime and Delinquency, 59(5), 1157-1184 Hinduja, Sameer and Kooi, Brandon. (2013). Curtailing cyber and information security vulnerabilities through situational crime prevention. Security Journal, 26(4), 383-402 Patchin, Justin W. and Hinduja, Sameer. (2011). Traditional and non-traditional bullying among youth: A test of general strain theory. Youth Society, 43(2), 727-751. Reyns, Bradford W. (2013). Online routines and identity theft victimization: Further explaining routine activity theory beyond direct-control offenses. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 50(2), 216-238 Runions, Kevin C. (2013). Toward a conceptual model of motive and self-control in cyber-aggression: Rage, reward and recreation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(5), 751-771. Van Wilsem, Johan. (2011). Worlds tied together? Online and non-domestic routine activities and their impact on digital and traditional threat victimization. European Journal of Criminology, 8(2), 115-127

Chemical and Biological Weaponry :: Biological Warfare Nuclear Weapons Ethics Essays

Chemical and Biological Weaponry Introduction: A Modern Day Trojan Horse Although the envelope resembled a letter from a fourth grade student, the contents addressed to Senator Tom Daschle were life threatening. Laced within the envelope was a form of the bacteria known as Bacillus Anthracis, bacteria more commonly known as anthrax. When exposed to humans, an anthrax infection leads to the release of toxins, which if not properly treated are fatal (cnn.com). Around the same time of Senator Daschle’s threat, other cases of anthrax exposure were publicized. Just like that, chemical and biological weaponry worry the minds of the public. Some call such weapons â€Å"the poor man’s atomic bomb† – its construction cheaper and effects potentially as far-reaching and devastating. The ability to manufacture chemical or biological threats is relatively much easier and its availability more widespread that nuclear weapons. Because of this, many believe any future terrorist attacks might be done with biological weapons similar to anthrax. Though seemingly a new threat, similar weaponry has been the subject of debate for decades. This paper discusses the subject of many of those debates, the ethical implications of its use and development. To clarify, â€Å"biological warfare is the intentional use of disease-causing microorganisms or other entities that can replicate themselves (e.g., viruses, infectious nucleic acids and prions) against humans, animals or plants for hostile purposes† (Adam Rotfeld, SIPRI Fact Sheet, page 1). Furthermore, â€Å"it may also involve the use of toxins: poisonous substances produced by living organisms†¦plants†¦and animals. If they are utilized for warfare purpose, the synthetically manufactured counterparts of these toxins are biological weapons† (Rotfeld 1). Delivery of such substances can be as easy as sending it via mail, as in the anthrax example, or as sophisticated as mounting a chemical warhead onto a missile. Other possible means of delivery include introducing a substance to a water supply or through air dispersal in the form of gas. This paper will use the terms â€Å"biological weapons† and â€Å"chemical weapons† interchangeably. A Brief History of Use As far back as the 6th century BC, warring nations have been involved with the use of biological weaponry (Henry Hardy, Biological Weapons FAQ). Despite its long history, it is perhaps best to look at more recent events. With the better understanding of disease in the 20th century, various forms of chemical and biological weaponry emerged. During World War I, poisonous gases were used (Nicholas Fotion, Military Ethics, page 73) in addition to anthrax applications by German operatives (Rotfeld, 2).

Global Warming and Agriculture Essays -- Geology

Global Warming and Agriculture Global warming has been a major topic of environmental concern over the past several decades. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has recently predicted a 1 to 3.5 degree Celsius increase in average atmospheric temperature above 1990 levels by the year 2100. Although this temperature increase may seem small, even an increase or decrease of a few degrees in atmospheric temperature is capable of causing drastic alterations in the agricultural process, among many other everyday issues. Though many studies have been done on the probable effects of an increase in global mean temperature, much is still unknown or only guessed at, due to a general lack of deeper understanding of Earth?s very complex climate system. The effects of factors such as climate variability, water availability, and quality of adaptive response by farmers to the changing climate cannot be determined conclusively. This results in a rather wide range of variability in predictions of global warming eff ects on Earth?s various regions. Even specific temperature and precipitation changes cannot be determined, as they will most likely vary greatly from region to region. The most important factor in the success or failure of a harvest is a sufficiently moist soil during the growing season. A global increase in atmospheric temperatures most probably will cause a general increase in the frequency and duration of droughts and heavy rains, both damaging to agricultural crops. Extended droughts, such as the massive drought of the 1930s known as the ?Dust Bowl,? have throughout history been the causes of massive crop failures. As the Earth?s temperature continues to rise, water supply problems will become more and more o... ...erature and carbon dioxide levels. America and its farmers face a difficult task in preparing for the effects of changing climate on agriculture. BIBLIOGRAPHY http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/impacts/index.html http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/9717DD.html http://climatechange.gc.ca/english/html/impacts.html http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/cover.html http://www.gcrio.org/gwcc/part2.html http://www.whitehouse.gov/Initiatives/Climate/vulnerabilities.html Global Warming and Agriculture Essays -- Geology Global Warming and Agriculture Global warming has been a major topic of environmental concern over the past several decades. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has recently predicted a 1 to 3.5 degree Celsius increase in average atmospheric temperature above 1990 levels by the year 2100. Although this temperature increase may seem small, even an increase or decrease of a few degrees in atmospheric temperature is capable of causing drastic alterations in the agricultural process, among many other everyday issues. Though many studies have been done on the probable effects of an increase in global mean temperature, much is still unknown or only guessed at, due to a general lack of deeper understanding of Earth?s very complex climate system. The effects of factors such as climate variability, water availability, and quality of adaptive response by farmers to the changing climate cannot be determined conclusively. This results in a rather wide range of variability in predictions of global warming eff ects on Earth?s various regions. Even specific temperature and precipitation changes cannot be determined, as they will most likely vary greatly from region to region. The most important factor in the success or failure of a harvest is a sufficiently moist soil during the growing season. A global increase in atmospheric temperatures most probably will cause a general increase in the frequency and duration of droughts and heavy rains, both damaging to agricultural crops. Extended droughts, such as the massive drought of the 1930s known as the ?Dust Bowl,? have throughout history been the causes of massive crop failures. As the Earth?s temperature continues to rise, water supply problems will become more and more o... ...erature and carbon dioxide levels. America and its farmers face a difficult task in preparing for the effects of changing climate on agriculture. BIBLIOGRAPHY http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/impacts/index.html http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/9717DD.html http://climatechange.gc.ca/english/html/impacts.html http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/cover.html http://www.gcrio.org/gwcc/part2.html http://www.whitehouse.gov/Initiatives/Climate/vulnerabilities.html